Atkinson and Shiffrin (1968): sensory memory → short-term memory → long-term memory, with rehearsal transferring information.
Working memory model (WMM)
Baddeley and Hitch (1974): STM as an active system with a central executive, phonological loop, visuospatial sketchpad (and later an episodic buffer).
Primacy and recency
Better recall of items at the start (in LTM) and end (still in STM) of a list.
Articulatory suppression
Repeating a word aloud to occupy the phonological loop.
MSM: STM has limited capacity (about 7 ± 2 items) and duration (about 18–30 seconds without rehearsal); LTM is thought to be unlimited.
The full notes, worked example, interactive diagram and check questions for this subtopic are in the app.
Exam tip: Know one supporting study and one limitation for each model; comparing the MSM and WMM is a common exam question.
G.2Schema theory and reconstructive memory
Key terms
Schema
A mental representation of knowledge about a concept, built from experience, that organizes information and guides expectations.
Reconstructive memory
Memory is rebuilt at recall using schemas and new information, so it can be distorted.
Leading question
A question that suggests a particular answer.
Script
A schema for a sequence of events, e.g. going to a restaurant.
Schemas speed up processing but can distort encoding and retrieval, leading to stereotyping and false memories.
The full notes, worked example, interactive diagram and check questions for this subtopic are in the app.
Exam tip: Distinguish schema effects at encoding (Bransford and Johnson) from effects at retrieval (Anderson and Pichert).
G.3Thinking and decision-making
Key terms
Dual process model
System 1 is fast, automatic and intuitive; System 2 is slow, effortful and logical.
Heuristic
A mental shortcut that simplifies decisions but can cause errors.
Anchoring bias
Relying too much on the first piece of information when estimating.
Framing effect
Decisions change depending on how options are presented (gains vs losses).
Kahneman's dual process model: most everyday decisions use System 1, which is efficient but prone to cognitive biases.
The full notes, worked example and check questions for this subtopic are in the app.
Exam tip: Link biases to the dual process model: they arise when System 1 answers a question System 2 should handle.
G.4Emotion and cognition
Key terms
Flashbulb memory
A vivid, detailed memory of the circumstances in which one learned of a surprising, emotional event.
Amygdala
Brain structure involved in emotional processing and enhancing emotional memories.
Appraisal
How a person evaluates a situation, which influences the emotion felt.
Brown and Kulik (1977) proposed flashbulb memories, e.g. where people were when they heard of the assassination of President Kennedy, as special and highly accurate.
The full notes, worked example and check questions for this subtopic are in the app.
Exam tip: Separate vividness or confidence from accuracy when discussing emotional memories.